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Fossil Hydrocarbons: More Than Fuel

  • tannerjanesky
  • Mar 19
  • 11 min read

The many uses of fossil hydrocarbons, and what we do and don't have alternatives for.


We tend to call the coal, oil, and natural gas extracted from the ground "fossil fuels." The "fossil" indicates that they took a long time to form, which is accurate. The "fuels" part suggests that we burn them to convert their stored chemical energy into a more usable form, but these fossil hydrocarbons are used for much more than just fuels. They serve as the raw feedstock for a ridiculous amount of stuff we use.



Fossil hydrocarbons are naturally occurring compounds composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. Coal, crude oil, and natural gas formed over millions of years as organic matter—plants, algae, and microscopic organisms—was buried, compressed, and heated beneath layers of sediment. This slow transformation, occurring over 10 to 300 million years, produced energy-rich compounds that we now extract and refine for various uses.


It would be a mistake to think that we can switch to renewable energy and be done with fossil hydrocarbons. Understanding how many things fossil hydrocarbons are used for is necessary for transitioning to a sustainable use of materials and feeding everyone.


Primary Uses of Fossil Hydrocarbons


Energy and Fuel


Most fossil hydrocarbons are indeed used as fuels—87%. These hydrocarbons are burned to produce some other form of energy that we want, usually electricity, heat, or motion. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), fossil fuels accounted for 84% of global energy consumption in 2022. Coal and natural gas generate nearly 60% of the world’s electricity, while roughly 60% of crude oil is refined into gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel for transportation. Natural gas heats about 50% of U.S. homes.



After extraction, natural gas is purified and compressed, coal is cleaned and crushed, and crude oil is separated into different parts at refineries. After these fossil hydrocarbon fuels are burned, they are turned into gasses, released into the atmosphere, and cannot be reused. The combustion process releases CO2 and other gas and toxic particulate emissions, contributing to air pollution.


Plastics and Synthetic Materials


Plastics are everywhere: consumer goods, clothes, flooring... They're made through a series of chemical processes that transform fossil hydrocarbon feedstocks—mainly crude oil and natural gas—into versatile materials with different properties. The raw hydrocarbons are refined and distilled into fractions, with naphtha from crude oil and natural gas liquids like ethane and propane serving as key ingredients.


In a process called steam cracking, high temperatures break these hydrocarbons into smaller molecules known as monomers—including ethylene, propylene, and butadiene—that act as the building blocks of plastics. For example, ethylene is used to make polyethylene (PE), the world’s most common plastic, while propylene produces polypropylene (PP), known for its strength and heat resistance.


Next, monomers are chemically bonded into long chains called polymers through polymerization. The two main methods used are addition polymerization, where monomers link without losing atoms to create plastics like PE, PP, and polystyrene, and condensation polymerization, where monomers bond and release a small byproduct like water, forming materials like nylon and polyester.



Once the polymers are formed, they are blended with additives to achieve specific properties such as flexibility, UV resistance, strength, color, etc. This polymer mixture is melted and shaped into small pellets called resin pellets or nurdles, which manufacturers then mold, extrude, or cast into finished plastic products used in everything from packaging and electronics to textiles and automotive parts.


Synthetic rubber is made in a very similar way. Fossil hydrocarbon feedstocks are refined to extract monomers that are then polymerized, coagulated, dried, and pelletized. The polymer chains are often vulcanized—crosslinked with sulfur— to make the rubber more elastic, durable, and heat resistant. The final synthetic rubber can then be molded, extruded, or shaped into products such as tires, seals, gaskets, and conveyor belts.


It's hard to overstate how many different uses we have for plastics and rubber. Plastics are made into long fibers and made into clothes. Anytime you see polyester, nylon, acrylic, or spandex on the tag, you're wearing plastic. These plastics are also used to make mattresses, furniture padding, carpets, and shoes.


Plastics are widely used in building materials, from PVC or PEX water and drain pipes to the jacketing and insulation on wires. Plastic flooring materials are commonly used, as well as siding, adhesives, and vapor barriers.


40% of global plastic consumption is for packaging. That's plastic that's designed to be immediately thrown away (or recycled?) after it's transported an item from the manufacturer to the consumer.


Some plastics can be recycled more easily than others, but usually the quality of recycled plastic is inferior because the polymer chains get shortened, which affects its strength. PET and HDPE are most recyclable (if they're clean and sorted properly), whereas PCV, ABS, polystyrene, and nylon are almost never recycled, either because of degradation or low economic value. Only about 9% of plastic waste is recycled globally (OECD, 2022). The rest is incinerated, landfilled, or pollutes ecosystems.


Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals


Fossil hydrocarbons underpin modern agriculture, enabling the production of fertilizers that sustain global food production. Natural gas provides both the energy and hydrogen needed to produce ammonia through the Haber-Bosch process. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), synthetic fertilizers support about half the world’s food supply.



Common nitrogen fertilizers include ammonia, urea, and ammonium nitrate, while pesticides and herbicides derived from petrochemicals are used extensively on pests and weeds. Fertilizers decompose into soil nutrients, though excess runoff can cause water pollution, while pesticides may persist as environmental contaminants.


This is a pretty big deal. If suddenly there was no more natural gas, about 4 billion people would face a lack of food. Fossil hydrocarbons underpin the world food supply.


Lots of Other Stuff


Fossil hydrocarbons are used for so many different things it's mind-boggling to think about. They provide asphalt for roads and roofing, as well as insulation, adhesives, and sealants. They hold plywood and OSB together and serve as dyes and paints.


The electronics industry relies on hydrocarbon-derived materials for circuit boards, wiring insulation, and plastic casings.


In healthcare, fossil hydrocarbons are the foundation for synthetic rubber used in gloves, tubing, and medical devices, while petrochemical compounds are key ingredients in pharmaceuticals such as aspirin and antibiotics.


Besides all the obvious plastic stuff, consumer products like cosmetics, shampoo, laundry detergents, and cleaners are made of fossil hydrocarbons. So is sports equipment like yoga mats, tennis balls, and shoe soles. Paper cups, food containers, and metal cans are lined with plastic.


Transportation relies on hydrocarbons not only for fuel but also for lightweight synthetic materials that improve vehicle performance. Aerospace and automotive industries use carbon fiber and high-performance polymers to reduce weight and increase fuel efficiency.


Synthetic lubricants derived from hydrocarbons are used not just for machinery—engine oil, transmission fluid, coolant, grease, hydraulic fluid, chain lubricant, etc—but for door hinges, chainsaws, fan bearings, and blenders.


Everyday items like furniture cushions, upholstery, and synthetic leather are made from petrochemical derivatives. Even seemingly natural products, like chewing gum and certain waxes, often contain synthetic polymers.


Despite growing efforts to find alternatives, fossil hydrocarbons remain irreplaceable in many industries due to their unique properties, versatility, and cost-effectiveness.




Renewable Substitutes


Energy


We have substitutes for many of the things that fossil hydrocarbons are used for. A lot of these are still hydrocarbons but come from renewable sources, hence why I've been making the "fossil" distinction. Fortunately, 87% of hydrocarbons are used as fuel—burned for heat, electricity generation, or locomotion—since we already have well-established technologies to replace them.


Solar, wind, and other renewables can produce electricity, EVs can achieve personal transportation, and heat pumps can handle space and water heating. There is no technological barrier; it's just a matter of deployment.


Industrial processes requiring much higher temperatures, such as metal refining and molding, are typically heated with coke (from coal), natural gas, or oil. These uses are a little less established than low-temperature heating, but alternatives do exist and just need some refinement. Electric arc furnaces, concentrated solar thermal, and green hydrogen can all provide the 1000+°C heat required for industry.


Bioplastics and Other Materials


Several of the most common plastics, like polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), can be produced from biological sources. Bio-based polyethylene can be synthesized from ethanol derived from sugarcane or corn. Bio-based PET is produced using bio-derived ethylene glycol combined with terephthalic acid. These bioplastics possess identical chemical structures to their fossil-based counterparts, allowing them to integrate seamlessly into existing manufacturing and recycling systems.


It's important to note that the term "bio-based" refers to the origin of the raw materials and does not necessarily imply biodegradability. Some bio-based plastics are designed to be durable and non-biodegradable, similar to fossil hydrocarbon-based plastics, while others are engineered for biodegradability under specific conditions.


Replacements for plastic packaging materials exist. Rather than cushioning a product with foam made of expanded polystyrene, polypropylene, or polyethylene, we can design packaging using folded corrugated paperboard (cardboard), molded pulp, or cellulose.


There are even alternatives for insulation in homes and buildings. Rather than polystyrene foams and fiberglass with formaldehyde binders, we can use renewable materials like cellulose, hempcrete, wool, or even mycelium-based insulation and cork.


Many household and personal products such as cleaners, laundry detergents, cosmetics, and shampoo are available using natural renewable ingredients. They're usually much healthier too.


No Viable Alternatives


Not all current fossil hydrocarbon-based products can be replaced. Certain high-performance lubricants, adhesives, and sealants require specific molecular structures that are challenging to replicate with bio-based materials. High-performance plastics, such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and certain polyimides, are essential in aerospace, medical, and electronic industries due to their exceptional strength and thermal stability. Carbon fiber is important for everything from automotive and aerospace parts to bike frames and tennis rackets.



Many active pharmaceutical ingredients are synthesized using petrochemical derivatives. The complex chemical structures and stringent purity requirements make it difficult to source these compounds from renewable materials.


Synthetic rubber does not currently have a good renewable replacement. Yes, natural rubber comes from the latex of the Hevea brasiliensis tree, but rubber made from crude oil and natural gas offers greater resistance to heat, oil, and chemicals, which makes it essential for applications like car tires, industrial seals, and medical gloves. I suppose one day it will be possible to synthesize the raw feedstocks from plant materials, but it's likely to be energy intensive.


Fertilizer


Finally, perhaps the most critical use of fossil hydrocarbons for which we have no alternative is for synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers. One of the most important plant macronutrients is nitrogen, and it's currently industrially synthesized using the Haber-Bosch process on a massive scale. This process combines atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen (typically from natural gas) under high pressure and temperature to produce ammonia (NH₃). Ammonia is then used to make nitrogen fertilizers such as urea, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate. The process consumes large amounts of fossil fuels, mainly natural gas, as both an energy source and a hydrogen feedstock.


Of course, plants grew just fine before humans came along and started feeding them synthetic fertilizer. In nature, when plants and animals die, fungi and microbes decompose them into their constituent parts to fertilize the next generation of growth. But a modern farm field is not nature. The source of natural fertilizer to power the cycle was removed when the field was cleared of all trees and other plant and animal life. Then the fungi and microorganisms in the soil die from lack of plant matter as food and a bombardment of tilling and synthetic chemical applications. Because the cleared land can no longer fertilize itself, the modern agricultural system is contingent upon applying copious amounts of synthetic fertilizer.



This intensive food production system allowed humans to produce more food than would otherwise be possible, which allowed the world population to grow to levels that it otherwise could not have reached without the conversion of natural gas into fertilizer. That puts us in a precarious position.


Organic fertilizers derived from natural sources such as animal manure, compost, and plant residues cannot come close to providing the nitrogen (or phosphorous or potassium) that plants need to produce enough food for humanity.


Green ammonia offers a renewable alternative to natural gas by utilizing renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar, to produce hydrogen through electrolysis, which is then combined with atmospheric nitrogen. While this method eliminates the need for fossil hydrocarbon inputs, it's very energy-intensive and cannot provide the quantities that current agriculture demands.


This is a big deal. If suddenly there were no more fossil hydrocarbons, the most pressing issue would be mass starvation as crops failed from a lack of nitrogenous fertilizer. Actually, more realistically, we would convert the remainder of wild lands into agricultural land to use the remaining soil fertility. Then, once that's exhausted (among a plethora of other environmental degradation problems), mass starvation would ensue.



Two Final Thoughts


My goal with this article is twofold. First, to demonstrate how many things in our modern world we use fossil hydrocarbons for. Second, to figure out how to use what remains of them responsibly in a way that benefits civilization far into the future. Therefore, I think the following two points warrant meticulous consideration.


Renewable isn't always better.


Renewable materials or hydrocarbons come from things that grow—usually plants. Plants require land, water, nutrients, and sunlight (low-entropy energy) to grow. They take water and carbon dioxide from the air and produce hydrocarbons that we humans can use for lots of different things. From eating them to power our bodies to building materials to biofuels, the importance of plant growth cannot be understated.


The total amount of all photosynthetic activity, all conversion of carbon dioxide into oxygen and hydrocarbon biomass, is called Net Primary Productivity (NPP)—and it's a big deal. As we use more renewable materials and fuels, we need to use a greater percentage of the earth's NPP. That means taking away natural forests or other ecosystems and replacing them with agricultural land. This cultivated land will then need synthetic fertilizer inputs and freshwater inputs in perpetuity. Whether it's a corn field for making ethanol, an oil palm plantation for making palm oil for food additives and cosmetics, or a spruce plantation for making construction lumber, natural wilderness must be displaced. There is only so much of Earth's natural ecosystems and NPP we can take away before tipping points are reached.


If we got all of our plastics, chemicals, building materials, and everything else fossil hydrocarbons provide us with from renewable sources, what condition would that leave the environment in? We often think "fossil fuel bad, renewable good," but this view doesn't consider the broader environmental implications. Can Earth provide all of the resources we currently use and want to use in the future—for 8, 9, or 10 billion humans—renewably from the Earth's finite supply of NPP?


Use fossil hydrocarbons for their highest use.


Fossil hydrocarbons are finite. They will run out at some point. We should use what remains wisely, and put them to their highest value uses—the uses we have no alternatives for. We have well-established ways of producing electricity, heating homes and buildings, and personal transportation that don't require burning up precious fossil resources. Prioritizing the deployment of renewables like wind and solar that are much more efficient than either fossil hydrocarbons or biofuels should be a priority. Even if we ignore any benefits to air quality, human health, and climatic impacts, we'll be saving our finite high-value resources for higher-value purposes.


If we burn up all the fossil hydrocarbons, where will we get the feedstocks for tires, advanced materials, fertilizer to feed the world, or life-saving pharmaceuticals? Only an idiot would put their family heirloom mahogany dining table in the fireplace for a night of heat when they have a cord of firewood in the garage. Yes, not all fossil hydrocarbons are the same, and they can't be used interchangeably. However, we can decide what to pull out of the ground and what refining techniques are used to give us different feedstocks. If we're going to use finite fossil hydrocarbons, we ought to use them in the most valuable way and preserve them as long as possible.



Questions for you:

  • Many people focus on transitioning away from fossil fuels for energy, but should we be just as focused on replacing fossil-based materials? Why or why not?

  • If you had to prioritize which fossil hydrocarbon-based products to replace with renewable alternatives, where would you start?

  • Would you be willing to pay more for products made from renewable materials if it meant reducing reliance on fossil hydrocarbons? Why or why not?



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